Figure  1.  Schematic illustration of the spray droplets, showing the spray-mediated heat fluxes.

Figure  2.  Sea spray volume fluxes against the 10-m reference height wind speed $ {U}_{10} $ .The solid black lines are the sea spray volume fluxes based on Xu et al. (2021b) for different values of the mean wave steepness (i.e., $ {H}_{\rm{s}}{k}_{{\rm{m}}}/2 $ varies from 0.1 to 0.4 with an increment of 0.1), the solid red line is based on Andreas (1992), and the solod green lines are based on (Zhao et al., 2006) for different values of the wave age ( $ \ \beta $ ) (i.e., $ \ \beta = 0.2 $ and 0.4, respectively).

Figure  3.  The air-sea sensible heat fluxes (SHF) against the 10-m reference height wind speed $ {U}_{10} $ . The sea spray induced sensible heat fluxes, $ {H}_{{\rm{s,sp}}} $ , is based on Xu et al. (2021b) (the dashed black lines with same gray value as in Fig. 2), Andreas (1992) (the dashed red line), and Zhao et al. (2006) (the dashed green lines with same color value as in Fig. 2), respectively. The interfacial direct sensible heat fluxes without sea spray, $ {H}_{{\rm{s,int}}} $ , is the dash black line with circle marks, and the air-sea sensible heat fluxes with sea spray, $ {H}_{{\rm{s,tot}}} $ , are the solid black, red, and green lines for Xu et al. (2021b), Andreas (1992), and Zhao et al. (2006), respectively (please see the legend in Fig. 2).

Figure  4.  The air-sea latent heat fluxes (LHF) against the 10-m reference height wind speed $ {U}_{10} $ . The sea spray induced latent heat fluxes, $ {H}_{{\rm{l,sp}}} $ , is based on Xu et al. (2021b) (the dashed black lines with same gray value as in Fig. 2), Andreas (1992) (the dashed red line), and (Zhao et al., 2006) (the dashed green lines with same color value as in Fig. 2), respectively. The interfacial direct latent heat fluxes without sea spray, $ {H}_{{\rm{l,int}}} $ , is the dash black line with circle marks, and the air-sea latent heat fluxes with sea spray, $ {H}_{{\rm{l,tot}}} $ , are the solid black, red, and green lines for Xu et al. (2021b), Andreas (1992), and Zhao et al. (2006), respectively (please see the legend in Fig. 2).

Figure  5.  The total air-sea heat fluxes (SHF+LHF) against the 10-m reference height wind speed $ {U}_{10} $ . The sea spray induced heat fluxes, $ {H}_{{\rm{l,sp}}}+{H}_{{\rm{s,sp}}} $ , is based on Xu et al. (2021b) (the dashed black lines with same gray value as in Fig. 2) , Andreas (1992) (the dashed red line), and (Zhao et al., 2006) (the dashed green lines with same color value as in Fig. 2), respectively. The interfacial direct air-sea total heat fluxes without sea spray, $ {H}_{{\rm{l,int}}}+{H}_{{\rm{s,int}}} $ , are the dash black line with circle marks, and the air-sea total heat fluxes with sea spray, $ {H}_{{\rm{l,tot}}}+{H}_{{\rm{s,tot}}} $ , are the solid black, red, and green lines for Xu et al. (2021b), Andreas (1992), and Zhao et al. (2006), respectively (please see the legend in Fig. 2).

Figure  6.  The sea spray induced salt fluxes (M) against the 10-m reference height wind speed $ {U}_{10} $ . The black lines are the sea spray induced salt fluxes, $ {M}_{{\rm{s,sp}}} $ , based on Xu et al. (2021b) for different $ {H}_{\rm{s}}{k}_{{\rm{m}}}/2 $ which varies from 0.1 to 0.4 with an increment of 0.1 (gray value as in Fig. 2), Andreas (1992) (the red line), and (Zhao et al., 2006) (the green lines with same color value as in Fig. 2), respectively (please see the legend in Fig. 2).

Figure  7.  The sea spray induced salt fluxes (M) based on the fifth-generation atmospheric reanalysis of the global climate (ERA-5) produced by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts for the annual average of 2010.

Figure  8.  The 10-m wind speed, $ {U}_{10} $ , based on the fifth-generation atmospheric reanalysis of the global climate (ERA-5) produced by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts for the annual average of 2010.

Figure  9.  The mean wave steepness, $ {H}_{{\rm{s}}}{k}_{{\rm{m}}}/2 $ , based on the fifth-generation atmospheric reanalysis of the global climate (ERA-5) produced by the European Centre for Medium-Range Weather Forecasts for the annual average of 2010.